List of Fallacies in Argument Essay Example for Free

List of Fallacies in Argument Essay A Formal fallacy is an error in logic that can be seen in the arguments form without requiring an understanding of the arguments content. All formal fallacies are specific types of non sequiturs. * Appeal to probability – takes something for granted because it would probably be the case, (or might possibly be the case). * Argument from fallacy – assumes that if an argument for some conclusion is fallacious, then the conclusion itself is false. * Base rate fallacy – making a probability judgement based on conditional probabilities, without taking into account the effect of prior probabilities. * Conjunction fallacy – assumption that an outcome simultaneously satisfying multiple conditions is more probable than an outcome satisfying a single one of them. * Masked man fallacy (illicit substitution of identicals) – the substitution of identical designators in a true statement can lead to a false one. A Propositional fallacy is an error in logic that concerns compound propositions. For a compound proposition to be true, the truth values of its constituent parts must satisfy the relevant logical connectives which occur in it (most commonly: and, or, not, only if, if and only if). The following fallacies involve inferences whose correctness is not guaranteed by the behavior of those logical connectives, and hence, which are not logically guaranteed to yield true conclusions. Types of Propositional fallacies: * Affirming a disjunct – concluded that one disjunct of a logical disjunction must be false because the other disjunct is true; A or B; A; therefore not B. * Affirming the consequent – the antecedent in an indicative conditional is claimed to be true because the consequent is true; if A, then B; B, therefore A. * Denying the antecedent – the consequent in an indicative conditional is claimed to be false because the antecedent is false; if A, then B; not A, therefore not B. A quantification fallacy is an error in logic where the quantifiers of the premises are in contradiction to the quantifier of the conclusion. Types of Quantification fallacies: * Existential fallacy – an argument has a universal premise and a particular conclusion. Syllogistic fallacies – logical fallacies that occur in syllogisms. * Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise (illicit negative) – when a categorical syllogism has a positive conclusion, but at least one negative premise. * Fallacy of exclusive premises – a categorical syllogism that is invalid because both of its premises are negative. * Fallacy of four terms (quaternio terminorum) – a categorical syllogism that has four terms. * Illicit major – a categorical syllogism that is invalid because its major term is not distributed in the major premise but distributed in the conclusion. * Illicit minor – a categorical syllogism that is invalid because its minor term is not distributed in the minor premise but distributed in the conclusion. * Negative conclusion from affirmative premises (illicit affirmative) – when a categorical syllogism has a negative conclusion but affirmative premises. * Fallacy of the undistributed middle – the middle term in a categorical syllogism is not distributed.[11] Informal fallacies – arguments that are fallacious for reasons other than structural (formal) flaws and which usually require examination of the arguments content. * Argument from ignorance (appeal to ignorance, argumentum ad ignorantiam) – assuming that a claim is true (or false) because it has not been proven false (true) or cannot be proven false (true). * Argument from repetition (argumentum ad nauseam) – signifies that it has been discussed extensively until nobody cares to discuss it anymore. * Argument from silence (argumentum e silentio) – where the conclusion is based on the absence of evidence, rather than the existence of evidence. * Argumentum verbosium – See Proof by verbosity, below. * Begging the question (petitio principii) – the failure to provide what is essentially the conclusion of an argument as a premise, if so required. * (shifting the) Burden of proof (see – onus probandi) – I need not prove my claim, you must prove it is false. * Circular reasoning – when the reasoner begins with what he or she is trying to end up with. * Circular cause and consequence – where the consequence of the phenomenon is claimed to be its root cause. * Continuum fallacy (fallacy of the beard, line-drawing fallacy, sorites fallacy, fallacy of the heap, bald man fallacy) – improperly rejecting a claim for being imprecise. * Correlation proves causation (cum hoc ergo propter hoc) – a faulty assumption that correlation between two variables implies that one causes the other. * Correlative-based fallacies * Suppressed correlative – where a correlative is redefined so that one alternative is made impossible. * Equivocation – the misleading use of a term with more than one meaning (by glossing over which meaning is intended at a particular time). * Ambiguous middle term – a common ambiguity in syllogisms in which the middle term is equivocated. * Ecological fallacy – inferences about the nature of specific individuals are based solely upon aggregate statistics collected for the group to which those individuals belong. * Etymological fallacy – which reasons that the original or historical meaning of a word or phrase is necessarily similar to its actual present-day meaning. * Fallacy of composition – assuming that something true of part of a whole must also be true of the whole. * Fallacy of division – assuming that something true of a thing must also be true of all or some of its parts. * False dilemma (false dichotomy, fallacy of bifurcation, black-or-white fallacy) – two alternative statements are held to be the only possible options, when in reality there are more. * If-by-whiskey – an argument that supports both sides of an issue by using terms that are selectively emotionally sensitive. * Fallacy of many questions (complex question, fallacy of presupposition, loaded question, plurium interrogationum) – someone asks a question that presupposes something that has not been proven or accepted by all the people involved. This fallacy is often used rhetorically, so that the question limits direct replies to those that serve the questioners agenda. * Ludic fallacy – the belief that the outcomes of a non-regulated random occurrences can be encapsulated by a statistic; a failure to take into account unknown unknowns in determining the probability of an events taking place. * Fallacy of the single cause (causal oversimplification) – it is assumed that there is one, simple cause of an outcome when in reality it may have been caused by a number of only jointly sufficient causes. * False attribution – an advocate appeals to an irrelevant, unqualified, unidentified, biased or fabricated source in support of an argument. * Fallacy of quoting out of context (contextomy) – refers to the selective excerpting of words from their original context in a way that distorts the sources intended meaning. * Argument to moderation (false compromise, middle ground, fallacy of the mean) – assuming that the compromise between two positions is always correct. * Gamblers fallacy – the incorrect belief that separate, independent events can affect the likelihood of another random event. If a coin flip lands on heads 10 times in a row, the belief that it is due to land on tails is incorrect. * Historians fallacy – occurs when one assumes that decision makers of the past viewed events from the same perspective and having the same information as those subsequently analyzing the decision.[29] (Not to be confused with presentism, which is a mode of historical analysis in which present-day ideas, such as moral standards, are projected into the past.) * Homunculus fallacy – where a middle-man is used for explanation, this sometimes leads to regressive middle-man. Explanations without actually explaining the real nature of a function or a process. Instead, it explains the concept in terms of the concept itself, without first defining or explaining the original concept. * Inflation Of Conflict The experts of a field of knowledge disagree on a certain point, so the scholars must know nothing, and therefore the legitimacy of their entire field is put to question. * Incomplete comparison – where not enough information is provided to make a complete comparison. * Inconsistent comparison – where different methods of comparison are used, leaving one with a false impression of the whole comparison. * Ignoratio elenchi (irrelevant conclusion, missing the point) – an argument that may in itself be valid, but does not address the issue in question. * Kettle logic – using multiple inconsistent arguments to defend a position. * Mind projection fallacy – when one considers the way he sees the world as the way the world really is. * Moving the goalposts (raising the bar) – argument in which evidence presented in response to a specific claim is dismissed and some other (often greater) evidence is demanded. * Nirvana fallacy (perfect solution fallacy) – when solutions to problems are rejected because they are not perfect. * Onus probandi – from Latin onus probandi incumbit ei qui dicit, non ei qui negat the burden of proof is on the person who makes the claim, not on the person who denies (or questions the claim). It is a particular case of the argumentum ad ignorantiam fallacy, here the burden is shifted on the person defending against the assertion. * Petitio principii – see begging the question. * Post hoc ergo propter hoc Latin for after this, therefore because of this (false cause, coincidental correlation, correlation without causation) – X happened then Y happened; therefore X caused Y. * Proof by verbosity (argumentum verbosium, proof by intimidation) – submission of others to an argument too complex and verbose to reasonably deal with in all its intimate details. (See also Gish Gallop and argument from authority.) * Prosecutors fallacy – a low probability of false matches does not mean a low probability of some false match being found. * Psychologists fallacy – an observer presupposes the objectivity of his own perspective when analyzing a behavioral event. * Red herring – a speaker attempts to distract an audience by deviating from the topic at hand by introducing a separate argument which the speaker believes will be easier to speak to. * Regression fallacy – ascribes cause where none exists. The flaw is failing to account for natural fluctuations. It is frequently a special kind of the post hoc fallacy. * Reification (hypostatization) – a fallacy of ambiguity, when an abstraction (abstract belief or hypothetical construct) is treated as if it were a concrete, real event or physical entity. In other words, it is the error of treating as a real thing something which is not a real thing, but merely an idea. * Retrospective determinism – the argument that because some event has occurred, its occurrence must have been inevitable beforehand. * Shotgun argumentation the arguer offers such a large number of arguments for their position that the opponent cant possibly respond to all of them. (See Argument by verbosity and Gish Gallop, above.) * Special pleading – where a proponent of a position attempts to cite something as an exemption to a generally accepted rule or principle without justifying the exemption. * Wrong direction – cause and effect are reversed. The cause is said to be the effect and vice versa. Faulty generalizations – reach a conclusion from weak premises. Unlike fallacies of relevance, in fallacies of defective induction, the premises are related to the conclusions yet only weakly buttress the conclusions. A faulty generalization is thus produced. * Accident – an exception to a generalization is ignored. * No true Scotsman – when a generalization is made true only when a counterexample is ruled out on shaky grounds. * Cherry picking (suppressed evidence, incomplete evidence) – act of pointing at individual cases or data that seem to confirm a particular position, while ignoring a significant portion of related cases or data that may contradict that position. * False analogy – an argument by analogy in which the analogy is poorly suited. * Hasty generalization (fallacy of insufficient statistics, fallacy of insufficient sample, fallacy of the lonely fact, leaping to a conclusion, hasty induction, secundum quid, converse accident) – basing a broad conclusion on a small sample. * Misleading vividness – involves describing an occurrence in vivid detail, even if it is an exceptional occurrence, to convince someone that it is a problem. * Overwhelming exception – an accurate generalization that comes with qualifications which eliminate so many cases that what remains is much less impressive than the initial statement might have led one to assume. * Pathetic fallacy – when an inanimate object is declared to have characteristics of animate objects. * Thought-terminating clichà © – a commonly used phrase, sometimes passing as folk wisdom, used to quell cognitive dissonance, conceal lack of thought-entertainment, move onto other topics etc. but in any case, end the debate with a cliche—not a point. A Red Herring fallacy is an error in logic where a proposition is, or is intended to be, misleading in order to make irrelevant or false inferences. In the general case any logical inference based on fake arguments, intended to replace the lack of real arguments or to replace implicitly the subject of the discussion. Red herring – argument given in response to another argument, which is irrelevant and draws attention away from the subject of argument. * Ad hominem – attacking the arguer instead of the argument. * Poisoning the well – a type of ad hominem where adverse information about a target is presented with the intention of discrediting everything that the target person says. * Abusive fallacy – a subtype of ad hominem when it turns into name-calling rather than arguing about the originally proposed argument. * Argumentum ad baculum (appeal to the stick, appeal to force, appeal to threat) – an argument made through coercion or threats of force to support position. * Argumentum ad populum (appeal to widespread belief, bandwagon argument, appeal to the majority, appeal to the people) – where a proposition is claimed to be true or good solely because many people believe it to be so. * Appeal to equality – where an assertion is deemed true or false based on an assumed pretense of equality. * Association fallacy (guilt by association) – arguing that because two things share a property they are the same * Appeal to authority – where an assertion is deemed true because of the position or authority of the person asserting it. * Appeal to accomplishment – where an assertion is deemed true or false based on the accomplishments of the proposer. * Appeal to consequences (argumentum ad consequentiam) – the conclusion is supported by a premise that asserts positive or negative consequences from some course of action in an attempt to distract from the initial discussion. * Appeal to emotion – where an argument is made due to the manipulation of emotions, rather than the use of valid reasoning. * Appeal to fear – a specific type of appeal to emotion where an argument is made by increasing fear and prejudice towards the opposin g side. * Appeal to flattery – a specific type of appeal to emotion where an argument is made due to the use of flattery to gather support. * Appeal to pity (argumentum ad misericordiam) – an argument attempts to induce pity to sway opponents. * Appeal to ridicule – an argument is made by presenting the opponents argument in a way that makes it appear ridiculous. * Appeal to spite – a specific type of appeal to emotion where an argument is made through exploiting peoples bitterness or spite towards an opposing party * Wishful thinking – a specific type of appeal to emotion where a decision is made according to what might be pleasing to imagine, rather than according to evidence or reason. * Appeal to motive – where a premise is dismissed by calling into question the motives of its proposer * Appeal to novelty (argumentum ad novitam) – where a proposal is claimed to be superior or better solely because it is new or modern. * Appeal to poverty (argumentum ad Lazarum) – supporting a conclusion because the arguer is poor (or refuting because the arguer is wealthy). (Opposite of appeal to wealth.) * Appeal to tradition (argumentum ad antiquitam) – a conclusion supported solely because it has long been held to be true. * Appeal to nature wherein judgement is based solely on whether the subject of judgement is natural or unnatural. For example (hypothetical): Cannabis is healthy because it is natural * Appeal to wealth (argumentum ad crumenam) – supporting a conclusion because the arguer is wealthy (or refuting because the arguer is poor). (Sometimes taken together with the appeal to poverty as a general appeal to the arguers financial situation.) * Argument from silence (argumentum ex silentio) – a conclusion based on silence or lack of contrary evidence. * Bulverism (Psychogenetic Fallacy) inferring why an argument is being used, associating it to some psychological reason, then assuming it is invalid as a result. It is wrong to assume that if the origin of an idea comes from a biased mind, then the idea itself must also be a false. * Chronological snobbery – where a thesis is deemed incorrect because it was commonly held when something else, clearly false, was also commonly held * Genetic fallacy – where a conclusion is suggested based solely on something or someones origin rather than its current meaning or context. * Judgmental language – insulting or pejorative language to influence the recipients judgment * Naturalistic fallacy (is–ought fallacy, naturalistic fallacy) – claims about what ought to be on the basis of statements about what is. * Reductio ad Hitlerum (playing the Nazi card) – comparing an opponent or their argument to Hitler or Nazism in an attempt to associate a position with one that is universally reviled (See also – Godwins law) * Straw man – an argument based on misrepresentation of an opponents position. * Texas sharpshooter fallacy – improperly asserting a cause to explain a cluster of data. * Tu quoque (you too, appeal to hypocrisy) – the argument states that a certain position is false or wrong and/or should be disregarded because its proponent fails to act consistently in accordance with that position. * Two wrongs make a right – occurs when it is assumed that if one wrong is committed, another wrong will cancel it out. Conditional or questionable fallacies * Black swan blindness – the argument that ignores low probability, high impact events, thus down playing the role of chance and under-representing known risks. * Broken window fallacy – an argument which disregards lost opportunity costs (typically non-obvious, difficult to determine or otherwise hidden) associated with destroying property of others, or other ways of externalizing costs onto others. For example, an argument that states breaking a window generates income for a window fitter, but disregards the fact that the money spent on the new window cannot now be spent on new shoes. * Definist fallacy – involves the confusion between two notions by defining one in terms of the other. * Naturalistic fallacy – attempts to prove a claim about ethics by appealing to a definition of the term good in terms of either one or more claims about natural properties (sometimes also taken to mean the appeal to nature) or Gods will. * Slippery slope (thin edge of the wedge, camels nose) – asserting that a relatively small first step inevitably leads to a chain of related events culminating in some significant impact/event that should not happen, thus the first step should not happen. While this fallacy is a popular one, the it is, in its essence, an appeal to probability fallacy. (e.g if person x does y then z would (probably) occur, leading to q, leading to w, leading to e.)

A Look at Todays Whaling Essay -- Fishing Ocean Papers

A Look at Today's Whaling â€Å" The story of the whale is so remarkable, that were there not so many witnesses, I would not venture to tell it, lest I be accused of exaggeration.† -J.D.B Stillman, aboard the ship Plymouth, November 1850 (Stewart, 1995) There is no doubt that humans have always been intrigued with the majestic beauty of the large giants found in all of the world’s oceans. Whales and people have had a long history together, marked by many turns of events. Long ago, native tribes, from many places in the world, depended largely on whales for protein in their diets. They were also able to use much of the whale for oil, thus began a tradition of whaling. The first documented whaling expedition occurred in South Korea around 6000 BC (Bryant, 2000). Whaling began with smaller whales, since humans had only small boats and weapons, such as spears. However, as humans developed larger, more powerful weapons and built bigger boats, they also attained the ability to hunt larger whales. At this time, whaling became an industry, rather than a method of obtaining nutrition and oil when needed. As the whaling industry gained popularity the whale populations began to decline. Whalers moved from one species to another as their numbers decreased to a population size that was no longer economical to hunt. This strain on the whale populations was the heaviest with the creation of whole whaling fleets. It is apparent, that although whaling has important economic value, providing oil and meat, it also has a devastating affect on the whale populations that are targeted. Conservation and sustainability of whale populations has been ignored for a long period of time, leading to possible extinction for many species. Whaling ... ...eo retrieved November 20, 2004, from the following website: http://www.orcaconservancy.org/captivity Horvath, Beth. Gray whales. Lecture given on July 27, 2004 during a Marine Mammals class through AuSable Institute. International Whaling Commission (2004). Aboriginal subsistence whaling. Retrieved November 20, 2004, from the following website: http://www.iwcoffice.org/conservation/aboriginal.htm Marine mammal protection act of 1972. Retrieved October 3, 2004, from the following website: http://laws.fws.gov/lawsdigest/marmam.html Melville, Herman (1952). Moby-Dick. New York, NY: Hendricks House, Inc. Misaki, Shigeko (2000). Media wars on whales and whaling. Retrieved November 21, 2004, from the following website: http://luna.pos.to/whale/gen_mis_media.html Stewart, Frank (1995). The presence of whales. Seattle, WA: Alaska Northwest Books. A Look at Today's Whaling Essay -- Fishing Ocean Papers A Look at Today's Whaling â€Å" The story of the whale is so remarkable, that were there not so many witnesses, I would not venture to tell it, lest I be accused of exaggeration.† -J.D.B Stillman, aboard the ship Plymouth, November 1850 (Stewart, 1995) There is no doubt that humans have always been intrigued with the majestic beauty of the large giants found in all of the world’s oceans. Whales and people have had a long history together, marked by many turns of events. Long ago, native tribes, from many places in the world, depended largely on whales for protein in their diets. They were also able to use much of the whale for oil, thus began a tradition of whaling. The first documented whaling expedition occurred in South Korea around 6000 BC (Bryant, 2000). Whaling began with smaller whales, since humans had only small boats and weapons, such as spears. However, as humans developed larger, more powerful weapons and built bigger boats, they also attained the ability to hunt larger whales. At this time, whaling became an industry, rather than a method of obtaining nutrition and oil when needed. As the whaling industry gained popularity the whale populations began to decline. Whalers moved from one species to another as their numbers decreased to a population size that was no longer economical to hunt. This strain on the whale populations was the heaviest with the creation of whole whaling fleets. It is apparent, that although whaling has important economic value, providing oil and meat, it also has a devastating affect on the whale populations that are targeted. Conservation and sustainability of whale populations has been ignored for a long period of time, leading to possible extinction for many species. Whaling ... ...eo retrieved November 20, 2004, from the following website: http://www.orcaconservancy.org/captivity Horvath, Beth. Gray whales. Lecture given on July 27, 2004 during a Marine Mammals class through AuSable Institute. International Whaling Commission (2004). Aboriginal subsistence whaling. Retrieved November 20, 2004, from the following website: http://www.iwcoffice.org/conservation/aboriginal.htm Marine mammal protection act of 1972. Retrieved October 3, 2004, from the following website: http://laws.fws.gov/lawsdigest/marmam.html Melville, Herman (1952). Moby-Dick. New York, NY: Hendricks House, Inc. Misaki, Shigeko (2000). Media wars on whales and whaling. Retrieved November 21, 2004, from the following website: http://luna.pos.to/whale/gen_mis_media.html Stewart, Frank (1995). The presence of whales. Seattle, WA: Alaska Northwest Books.

International Economics of Thailand Essay

The country of Thailand is located in the southeast Asia region, south of China and immediately bordering Burma to the west, Laos to the East and Cambodia to the south. Around 65 million people inhabit Thailand with the capital and its largest city being Bangkok; the national currency is the baht. After a series of political and military turmoil thrashed the country in the mid 2000’s, December of 2007 earmarked the reinstatement of a democratic government as well as the inclusion of full democratic elections. The official language is Thai and has remained that since the country’s early beginnings. Buddhism encompasses most the Thailand’s population in terms of religion, nearly 95%, with all belonging to the Theravada denomination. On a global scale Thailand is quite a large country for how small it is geographically; it ranks 50th as far as total area, and is the 20th most populous in the world. Thailand is abundant in both land and labor factors of production. The land measures roughly 510,890 sq km and is full of natural resources such as tin, rubber, natural gas, timber, lead, fish, and many metals. The large amount of agricultural production lead to a GDP of $539.3 billion in 2009. The 2009 household consumption expenditure was 2.05% even though the real GDP growth rate was -2.2%2. The final factor of production for Thailand, labor, is another one of their most abundant resources. In 2009, the labor force was comprised of 38.43 million people. They were divided between 42.4% working in agriculture, 19.7% in industry, and 37.9% in services3. This is consistent with the large amount of arable land throughout the country. With much production occurring in the agricultural sector, is makes sense that Thailand exports agricultural commodities. The country also exports machinery and electronic components, and jewelry. The machinery and electronic parts are a major export because of the size of the labor force.  Jewelry exports are large due to the amount of natural metals and jewels found in the land. The exports drive the economy and account for more than half of GDP. In 2009, exports totaled $150.7 billion. The major importers are the United States at 10.94%, China at 10.58%, Japan with 10.32%, Hong Kong with 6.22%, and Australia importing 5.62%3. The global financial crisis of 2008-2009 severely hurt Thailand’s exports with most industries dropping a large percent. Imports were also affected the financial crises. in 2009, they totaled $118 billion. Most imports were in capital goods, intermediate goods, and raw materials. This is because of the lack of capital factors of production and the large labor force. Thailand imports from Japan (18.7%), China (12.73%), Malaysia (6.41%), United States (6.31%), and UAE (4.98%)3. [pic] It seems to be that the groups benefiting most from trade are the farmers and factory workers. The farmers have the largest labor force and therefore the highest amount of exports in the country. The factory workers are also benefiting from the import of cheap intermediate goods and raw materials from China and Malaysia. They then use the abundance of labor to produce machinery for export. In 2009, Thailand had a trade surplus of roughly $32.7 billion. Long before the liberalization of Thailand’s economy and its move to become an export-promoting economy in the mid 1980s, Thai governments have pursued Free Trade Agreements (FTA’s) and economic cooperation with fellow countries in the Eastern Hemisphere and of course, the USA. In 1967, Thailand help create the Association for South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN). ASEAN was founded to promote nation building, tackle communism and increase economic cooperation. This act has served as the foundation for establishing future FTA’s. Continuous dialog and a desire for economic growth led to the eventual signing of the ASEAN Free-Trade Agreement (AFTA). This paved the way for the elimination of tariffs for goods with 40% of its free on-board value having local input from ASEAN member countries (asean). Following the success of AFTA and its role in facilitating local  manufacturing industries, ASEAN countries sought to expand these FTA’s. This has led to signed FTA’s between ASEAN and China, India, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand. In addition, Thai and US authorities have been working on an inconclusive US-Thailand FTA since 2004. These agreements have grown Thailand’s export markets and such access to vast growing economies has allowed Thailand to quickly return to growth following the 2008 Global Recession. Unfortunately, with all the free-trade agreements, Thailand continues to have multiple barriers to entry for most foreign entrants and even some domestic ones. They are primarily in the service and transport sectors as well as sectors with significant local production. These include tariffs, quantitative barriers, customs barriers and taxation. Few of the most affected industries are finance, law, telecommunications, air and maritime transport, wood, textiles, transport equipment and professional services. In the finance industry, foreign investors are allowed a limited equity investment of up to 49% of the company. Any investment that amounts to greater than that is treated on a case-by-case basis by the government. In addition, foreign banks have limitations on their lending capabilities and the expansion of branches. Telecommunications also limits foreign investment and in addition to this, the government allocates frequency spectrum that have resulted in two telecommunications companies dominating the industry (Dee, 2004) (US Embassy, Bangkok, 2009). On the other hand, foreigners may own Law firms in Thailand, but only Thai-citizens may provide legal services. At-best, in certain cases, foreign citizens can serve in a limited capacity as a consultant. Such a nationality requirement extends to other professional services such as accountants and physicians as well where Thai-citizens have a higher priorit and only non-citizens that are a resident of Thailand and fluent in Thai are eligible. Industries such as wood and wood products (12.5% tariff), transport equipment (31% tariff) and textiles (25% tariff) continue to have import tariffs and licenses to encourage local production and ensure it is not  harmed. All of these tariffs are between 2 and 4 times the global average (Dee, 2004). Such tariffs are common practice all over the world to protect local businesses. In addition to these tariffs, Thailand’s barriers include several indirect methods that have a less tangible impact. Thailand’s complicated tax system is one such example. When one adds up the import tariff, excise duties and other sales tax on imported alcohol, the price is 400% higher. To complement these barriers, Thailand’s government adapted a â€Å"Buy Thai† policy, much to the resentment of foreign investors. In addition, the Customs department reserves the right to arbitrarily increase the import value of goods (US Embassy, Bangkok, 2009). Lastly, the lack of enforcement of Intellectual Property Rights and Patent laws cost US companies $400 million in 2007 (US Embassy, Bangkok, 2009). Pharma companies and Hollywood have had the most direct impact due to copyright infringements, delayed patents and its non-enforcement. Such haphazard barriers by the Thai government can dissuade potential investors. These barriers have a multi-purpose aim. Some tariffs are meant to be revenue generating tariffs, while others cost escalating. These cost-escalating tariffs stand to protect a local industry such as textile manufacturing, wood and timber logging. Barriers in the maritime and air transport have large capital requirements to enter it as well as a vested government interest in the form of state-owned airlines, airports and ports. Other barriers related to haphazard law enforcement and the â€Å"buy Thai† policy and seem less so economic barriers and more so politically motivated ones. A reversal in such barriers would allow air-passenger transport, maritime transport and communications to benefit the most and enable the finance, law and professional services industry to shore up its presence in Thailand while continuing to expand trade, commerce and therefore economic growth in the country. Simultaneously, the government aimed to stimulate domestic and foreign private investment over the coming decade by adapting Export Promotion (EP)  policies that decreased import tariffs, eliminated export tariffs and established the Board of Investment of Thailand (BOI). While initial investments were aimed at domestic-market production, this quickly moved to export-oriented production that was not limited by the size of the domestic market. This led to Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) ballooning from $40 million in 1970-1974 to $19 billion in 2006 (Kohpaiboon). Countries such as Japan, South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan had successfully adapted to export promotion policies while even more countries saw the negative effects of import substitution policies (South America). These polar effects point out the benefits of a trade-centered integrated economy. An exponential increase in FDI requires a stable banking system that is globally integrated. Unlike its Asian peers, almost half of Thailand’s 37 banks are foreign banks such as HSBC, Citibank and Standard Chartered. This has resulted in a strong banking system with assets worth 200% of GDP (Datamonitor, 2010). Other developing countries continue struggle with a government dominated banking system and low population penetration. Sustained growth in FDI has had spillover effects on Thailand’s human capital development and R&D projects to further aid economic growth. The BOI, since 2006 has been actively promoting R&D investments, bagging projects from companies such as Toyota, Honda and Siam Cement. In addition to this, the government has allocated $3 billion in the next 5-year plan for R&D projects with institutes such as Asian Institute of Technology taking lead (Datamonitor, 2010). Such spending has allowed domestic companies to adapt current technologies used world over while evolving new ones. This is a drastic change from the mid-1980s in Thailand when oxes and manual labor characterized agriculture and industry alike. In order for the results of R&D projects to be useful and then successful, an educated workforce is necessary. Starting in 1960, Thailand expanded its schooling system and made schooling mandatory for the first 7 years (Ministry of Education, 1998). A full generation later, the basic impact is visible. By 2006, Thailand boasted a 92% literacy rate, comparable in the region (Taiwan, Hong Kong, South Korea, Japan and Malaysia boast 90%+  literacy rates) and allocates 27% of its national budget to education (Malaysia allocated 20%) (UNDP, 2009). One current constraint is that 80% of the current workforce has had only primary education. However, the long-term impact of education should change this statistic over the coming decade and encourage further labor efficiencies. Unfortunately, a primary educated workforce is not Thailand’s main constraint to growth. In the years following a decade of high-paced growth, the Asian Financial Crisis, consequent political upheavals, natural disasters, corruption and such threatened to derail the Thai story of growth. In spite of all this growth, the high short-term external debt of its government nearly bankrupted Thailand, caused the stock exchange to lose 75% of its market value and devalued the then-pegged Baht by over 50%. The Thai economy came to a halt with layoffs across industries, depressed asset prices and a 12% cumulative drop in output for 1997-1998. This led to an inevitable $40 billion IMF-led rescue package for the most affected Asian economies (Hunter, Kaufman, & Krueger, 1999). The package allowed Thailand’s economy to stay solvent and resume growth only in 1999. The Asian Financial Crisis marked a start in Thailand’s sporadic political upheavals. This culminated in 2006 when Prime Minister Thaksin was removed from office in a bloodless coup while he attending the UN General Assembly in front of the world’s eyes. The 4 years since has seen scores of public demonstrations, 3 Prime Ministers and a riot culminating in the summer 2010 stand-off between the armed forces and pro-Thaksin demonstrators in central Bangkok. Meanwhile, neighboring countries such as Philippines, Vietnam and even Indonesia have moved toward political stability with their leaders transitioning their country into a period of economic growth (Marshall, 2010). These upheavals are a source of concern to international and domestic businesses and have a negative ripple effect through the economy. In fact, Thaksin is not the only corrupt politician to grace Thailand. Corruption plagues many institutions and bureaucracy’s there. Transparency international ranked Thailand 84th out of 178 countries on the Global  Corruption Index with China falling ahead in 78th position and India just behind in 87th place. Like most sizable developing countries, corruption is rampant in Thailand and other high-profile cases include the governor of Bangkok, Mr. Apirak. In 2009, the Thai government reported that the most number of corruption complaints within government agencies were filed against the Customs Department (Datamonitor, 2010). Taking cue from Singapore, Thailand must be more pro-active in reducing this rampant corruption in order to focus on economic and social development. Singapore along with New Zealand and Denmark topped the least for least corrupt countries (Zee News, 2010). Another growth constraint is natural disasters. In 2004, an earthquake followed by a tsunami caused widespread havoc and destruction. While Thailand’s direct impact was lower than Indonesia, with over 5,000 lives lost, 30,000 fishing boats and 120,000 tourism jobs lost, its effects cannot be ignored. Such continued disasters can hamper progress and instead undo years of economic development. Countries ranging from Indonesia to Seychelles were affected by this (United Nations, 2005). As the 1997 Financial Crisis demonstrated, Thailand is very integrated into the world’s economy. Therefore, with the arrival of the Great Recession in 2008, demand for its export-oriented production began to fall. Thailand’s dependence on exports put the country into a yearlong recession that it is now out of. In fact, Thailand is expected to grow at 4% this year. This quick recovery has been due to the deliberate public spending undertaken by the government. With the government undertaking a 5-year plan to boost infrastructure spending and reduce poverty, Thailand should see sustained growth over the coming years. As Thailand emerges from the Great Recession of 2008, there are several helpful pointers Thailand has taken from its experiences since the Asian Financial Crisis. The Thai government has learned of the benefits of a balanced budget, they successfully reduced government debt between 2002 and 2008, repaid IMF loans (2 years early) and regained growth. While corruption continues to exist, Thailand has an increasingly tougher National Counter  Corruption Commission and current Prime Minister Abhisit has proposed a Reconciliation Plan to create a more transparent, clean government. The tsunami has resulted in the implementation of an emergency alert system thereby preventing future calamities, social and economic losses. With a majority of new growth coming from Asia, Thailand is optimally situated as an export economy in the region. Strong historical ties to the US will ensure economic cooperation as the US economic recovery progresses. Continued spending on education will result in an efficient, productive labor-force allowing Thailand to grow from just an international finance center to an advanced technology driven, export oriented economy in the years to come. Economic policy outlook The government is pushing ahead with a major fiscal stimulus program worth Bt1.4trn (US$43bn), which is to run until 2012. However, the fiscal position is weak, and the government could struggle to finance the program in full without risking future financial stability. This second-stage stimulus program, known as Thai Khem Khaeng (Strong Thailand), centers on infrastructure projects as well as investment in agriculture, education and health. Owing to the fact that the government has only limited fiscal freedom (constitutional restrictions cap the budget deficit in any year at 20% of total expenditure), the majority of the programs spending is off-budget and is financed through increased borrowing. The government actually plans to reduce budgetary spending in fiscal year 2009/10 (October-September) in an attempt to contain the fiscal deficit, which ballooned in 2008/09 owing to a first-stage stimulus program that included cash grants and subsidies. The government is proposing another expansionary budget in 2010/11. As the economy begins to recover in 2010, the Bank of Thailand (BOT, the central bank) will begin to raise interest rates to contain inflation. As for the fiscal policy, the government will run a substantial budget deficit in 2010-11, but it should be narrower than in 2009, when it reached the equivalent of 4.4% of GDP. After reducing planned expenditure in 2009/10  by Bt200bn (US$5.8bn), the government proposes to increase it by about Bt400bn in 2010/11. It is also stimulating the economy with the Thai Khem Khaeng program of off-budget expenditure. Whether or not the program succeeds in stimulating growth, hinges mostly on its implementation. There is a risk that some funds will be lost to corruption or will be wasted, as was highlighted by a recent admission by the Comptrollergenerals Department that funding for projects previously rejected by the Budget Bureau had been approved owing to the government!s determination to proceed with economic stimulus. Assuming that the government receives full parliamentary approval to borrow another Bt400bn in the next three years, public debt could rise sharply relative to GDP in 2010-11. However, the finance minister, Korn Chatikavanij, recently said that as revenue growth so far in 2009/10 had exceeded expectations, the government might not need to borrow as much as it had originally planned. The BOT will begin to tighten monetary policy in second half of 2010 as the economy starts to recover and core inflation (which excludes raw foods and energy) accelerates. However, the central bank will not raise interest rates sharply, as there are still major risks to the recovery, and core inflation, which stood at 0.5% in January-February, remains at the low end of the official target range of 0.5-3%. The BOT has also expressed concern that prematurely raising the one-day repurchase rate†which stands at 1.25%, having been lowered by 250 basis points between December 2008 and April 2009†³could lead to inflows of foreign capital, pushing up asset prices to unsustainable levels and causing the baht to strengthen further. Works Cited CIA. (2010). Thailand. Retrieved November 20, 2010, from CIA – The World Factbook: www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/th.html Datamonitor. (2010). Thailand, In-depth PESTLE Insights. Datamonitor. Falvey, L. (2001). Thai Agriculture: Golden Cradle of Millennia. White Lotus Co Ltd. Hunter, W., Kaufman, G., & Krueger, T. (1999). The Asian Financial Crisis: Origins, Implications and Solutions. Ministry of Education. (1998). History of Thai Education. Retrieved November 2010, from Ministry of Education, Thailand: www.moe.go.th/main2/article/e-hist.htm UNDP. (2009). United Nations Development Programme. United Nations. United Nations. (2005). Impact on Thailand. United Nations. Zee News. (2010, October 26). India Slips Three Places in Global Corruption Rankings. Retrieved November 2010, from Zee News: www.zeenews.com/news663930.html Citation â€Å"Thailand.† Country Report. Thailand (2010): 1-27. Business Source Premier. EBSCO. Web. 13 Dec. 2010 ASEAN. (n.d.). Overview – asean. Retrieved from association of southeast asian nations: http://www.aseansec.org/64.htm Dee, P. (2004). A Systematic Evaluation of Services Trade Barriers: The Case of Thailand. Washington DC: Australian National University. â€Å"Thailand†. World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agnecy. Accessed November 23, 2010. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/th.html â€Å"Thailand Natural Resources†. Index Mundi. Updated 2010. Accessed November 23, 2010. http://www.indexmundi.com/thailand/natural_resources.html

What Is Expository Writing

Expository writing is used to convey factual information (as opposed to creative writing, such as fiction). It is the language of learning and understanding the world around us. If youve ever read an encyclopedia  entry, a how-to article on a website, or a chapter in a textbook, then youve encountered examples of  expository writing. Key Takeaways: Expository Writing Just the facts, Mam: Expository writing is informational, not creative writing.Anytime you write to describe or explain, you use expository writing.Use a logical flow when planning an expository essay, report, or article: introduction, body text, and conclusion.Its often easier to write the body of your article first, before composing the introduction or conclusion. Expository writing is everywhere in everyday life, not just academic settings, as its present anytime theres information to be conveyed. It can take form in an academic paper, an article for a newspaper, a report for a business, or even book-length nonfiction. It explains, informs, and describes. Types of Expository Writing In  composition studies, expository writing (also called exposition) is one of the four traditional  modes of discourse. It may include elements of  narration,  description, and  argumentation. Unlike creative or  persuasive writing, which can appeal to emotions and use anecdotes, expository  writings primary  purpose  is to deliver information about an issue, subject, method, or idea using facts. Exposition may take one of several forms: Descriptive/definition:  In this style of writing, topics are defined by characteristics, traits, and examples. An encyclopedia entry is a kind of descriptive essay.  Process/sequential:  This essay outlines a series of steps needed in order to complete a task or produce something. A recipe at the end of an article in a food magazine is one example.Comparative/contrast:  This kind of exposition is used to demonstrate how two or more subjects are the same and different. An article that explains the difference between owning and renting a home and the benefits and drawbacks of each is one such an example.Cause/effect:  This kind of essay describes how one step leads to a result. An example is a personal blog chronicling a workout regimen and documenting the results over time.Problem/solution: This type of essay presents a problem and possible solutions, backed by data and facts, not just opinion.Classification: A classification essay breaks down a broad topic into categories or groupings. Tips for Expository Writing As you write, keep in mind some of these tips for creating an effective expository essay: Start where you know the information best. You dont have to write your introduction first. In fact, it might be easier to wait until the end for that. If you dont like the look of a blank page, move over the slugs from your outline for the main body paragraphs and write the topic sentences for each. Then start putting in your information according to each paragraphs topic. Be clear and concise.  Readers have a limited attention span. Make your case succinctly in language that the average reader can understand.   Stick to the facts.  Although an exposition can be persuasive, it should not be based on opinion only. Support your case with facts, data, and reputable sources that can be documented and verified. Consider voice and tone.  How you address the reader depends on the kind of essay youre writing. An essay written in the first person is fine for a personal travel essay but is inappropriate if youre a business reporter describing a patent lawsuit. Think about your audience before you begin writing. Planning Your Essay Brainstorm: Jot down ideas on a blank piece of paper. Connect them with arrows and lines, or just make lists. Rigor doesnt matter at this stage. Bad ideas dont matter at this stage. Just write down ideas, and the engine in your head will lead you to a good one.When youve got that idea, then repeat the brainstorming exercise with ideas that you want to pursue on that topic and information you could put in. From this list, youll start to see a path emerge for your research or narrative to follow.Compose your thesis: When your ideas coalesce into a sentence in which you can summarize the topic youre writing about, youre ready to compose your thesis sentence. Write down in one sentence the main idea that youll explore in your paper.Examine your thesis: Is it clear? Does it contain opinion? If so, revise that out. For this type of essay, you stick to the facts and evidence. This isnt an editorial. Is the thesis scope manageable? You dont want your topic too narrow or too broad to be cover ed in the amount of space you have for your paper. If its not a manageable topic, refine it. Dont be dismayed if you have to come back and tweak it if your research finds that your initial idea was off-kilter. Its all just part of the process of focusing the material.Outline: It may seem inconsequential, but making even a quick outline can save you time by organizing your areas of pursuit and narrowing them down. When you see your topics in an organized list, you may be able to discard off-topic threads before you research them—or as youre researching them and you find they just dont work.Research: Find your data and sources to back up the areas you want to pursue to support your thesis statement. Look for sources written by experts, including organizations, and watch for bias. Possible sources include statistics, definitions, charts and graphs, and expert quotes and anecdotes. Compile descriptive details and comparisons to make your topic clear to your reader, when applicabl e. What Is an Expository Essay? An expository essay has three basic parts: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. Each is crucial to writing a clear article or effective argument. The introduction: The first paragraph is where youll lay the foundation for your essay and give the reader an overview of your thesis. Use your opening sentence to get the readers attention, and then follow up with a few sentences that give your reader some context for the information youre about to cover. The body:  At a minimum, include three to five paragraphs in the body of your expository essay. The body could be considerably longer, depending on your topic and audience. Each paragraph begins with a topic sentence where you state your case or objective. Each topic sentence supports your overall thesis statement. Then, each paragraph includes several sentences that expand on the information and/or support the topic sentence. Finally, a concluding sentence offers a transition to the following paragraph in the essay. The conclusion:  The final section of your expository essay should give the reader a concise overview of your thesis. The intent is not merely to summarize  your argument but to use it as a means of proposing further action, offering a solution, or posing new questions to explore.  Dont cover new material related to your thesis, though. This is where you wrap it all up. Expository Examples An expository article or report about a lake, for example, could discuss its ecosystem: the plants and animals that depend on it along with its climate. It could describe physical details about its size, depth, amount of rainfall each year, and the number of tourists it receives annually. Information on when it was formed, its best fishing spots, or its water quality could be included, depending on the audience for the piece. An expository piece could be in third person or second person. Second-person examples could include, for example, how to test lake water for pollutants or how to kill invasive species. Expository writing is useful and informative. In contrast, someone writing a creative nonfiction article about a lake might relate the place to a defining moment in his or her life, penning the piece in first person. It could be filled with emotion, opinion, sensory details, and even include dialogue and flashbacks. Its a much more evocative, personal type of writing than an expository piece, even though theyre both nonfiction styles.